The Art of The Question

The art and science of asking questions is the source of all knowledge.
Thomas Berger, Novelist

When you think about it, the soul of communication is inquiry. Our speaking and writing is mostly asking and answering questions.  Sometimes the questions are implicit, not overtly stated. But they are definitely there in the background, motivating us to reach out to others. As novelist Thomas Berger succinctly says, knowledge – i. e. the transformation of raw sensory input, of data,  into meaning – depends on inquiry. As Berger also states, questioning is both an art and a science, or, using my usual theme, the engagement of both the heart and the head.  This essay will be about the question.  I will explore the other side of this transactional equation, the answer, another time. In many ways, the question is more important than the answer.  As American quality improvement guru W. Edwards Deming once said, “If you do not know how to ask the right question, you discover nothing.”

First, one has to define the context in which a question arises.  How to inquire effectively will depend on the nature of the situation.  Is the moment informal, like a casual conversation with friends? Is it semi-formal, like a work session with colleagues or a class seminar?  Is it critical to one’s well being, like a trial, a job interview, or a formal presentation to a client?  Needless to say, there is more at stake in a more formal situation, where outcomes have serious consequences, than in a bull session with pals.  “Why are we losing money?” trumps “What did you do last night?”

What is the type of audience?  Is it one person, a few folks, or a crowd?  What is the mood of the group?  Are the listeners positive towards you, neutral, or hostile?  Why are they attending?  Are they there primarily for  entertainment, or education, or to be persuaded?  For more on this subject, see my earlier posting, “Who’s Listening? Know Your Audience.” Let’s assume for the rest of this article that we are focusing on formal situations, where useful answers are critical.

QUESTION TYPES

There are many types of questions.  From hypothesis-based scientific inquiry to a plethora of special interrogation techniques ranging through philosophy, linguistics, and literature, the types would fill a large book.  Here, I limit my discourse to the basic ones, those that I have found most helpful with daily concerns of career, social relations, art, and intellectual life.

One basic difference in questioning is the  direct versus indirect question, aka “closed” versus “open” inquiry.  The direct question seeks a factual answer, often quantitative, often answered by just a word or phrase. It is usually about yes or no, or about who, what, where, when,  or how much.  This question is based on logic, the head.  When one wants very specific information, direct questioning is efficient.  Examples:

     Do you agree with my proposal?  (seeks yes or no)

     What would you like to order? (seeks selections from a list)

     What were our results last quarter?  (seeks statistics such as sales, revenue, cost, P&L.)

The art comes in in phrasing the question.  To get a specific answer, you employ a direct question or, for more complex matters, a series of linked direct questions.  In direct questioning, you use a specific inquiry based on commonly agreed upon terms, leaving no rhetorical wiggle room in the response. This kind of question is used when you cross-examine someone to ascertain key facts.

Also, this is the type of question to ask when you already know (or at least think you know) the answer.  So why ask if you already know?  Well, the goal of this usage is not knowledge;  it is veracity.  You want to determine if the answerer is being truthful.  This approach  is particularly helpful when the other person does not know that you, the questioner, knows the answer in advance!  In this situation, a series of direct questions, each one logically leading to the next, is often used to drill up or down to essential truth, also called “funneling”.  Drilling up starts with specifics and arrives at a general conclusion.  Drilling down starts with the general and arrives at specifics.  A funny thing can happen, however.  You might find that your assumptions of “the truth” underlying your questioning is not, or at least not fully, correct.  That’s a good thing!

Speaking of downward funneling, let me add here a sidebar on the Five-Whys technique in the The  Toyota Way.  Toyota Corporation developed many ways to improve their manufacturing processes after World War II, collectively termed The Toyota Way.  These have become world acclaimed benchmarks for process improvement. Among them is a theory of root-cause analysis which gets to the bottom of serious problems. You keep asking direct questions, typically a logically linked progression of about five queries.  The purpose is to investigate an observed failure of some sort in order to determine why it really happened.  Once identified, the root cause suggests corrective action.

In his book “The Toyota Way” (2007, McGraw Hill), author Jeffery K. Liker illustrates a Five-Whys exercise with an example on page 253.  I paraphrase it here:

     Q1:  Why is there a puddle of oil on the shop floor?     A1:  A machine is leaking oil.

     Q2:  Why is the machine leaking oil?     A2:  Its gasket has deteriorated.

     Q3:  Why is the gasket deteriorated?     A3: The gasket is of inferior quality.

     Q4:  Why was an inferior quality gasket purchased?     A4: The purchasing agent got a “good” deal on price.

     Q5:  Why is that the purchasing reason?     A5:  The purchasing agent is evaluated on short-term cost savings.

     Conclusion:  Change purchasing agent evaluation policy.

Now, the indirect question is quite different, and potentially very powerful.  The indirect question is used when you are not sure what knowledge you are seeking.  Indirect questioning uses open ended phraseology. For example, reworking the three sample questions above yields these indirect ones:

     What are your thoughts on my proposal?

     Tell me about what you like to eat?

     How were our financials last quarter?

Note that the second example is actually a command, not a question.  The intent is the same. You desire a relatively detailed response, the degree of which is to be revealed.

These questions elicit a broader response that can take some time.   If the initial response is lengthy (and perhaps longwinded in your judgment), you should interject from time to time to guide the response and winnow the verbiage to useful knowledge.  Note that there is a difference between interjecting and interrupting the speaker. There’s more below on that in the behavior section.  You may need to repeat back and summarize the answer you received to verify what is responded.  You most likely will need to ask for clarification of certain points.  This approach also helps to convince the listener you really heard what he or she said.  That tends to improve their view of you.  For instance:

     So what I am hearing is you accept the proposal, except for a few parts.  Is that right?  Can you clarify which                   parts are problematic for you?”

The great thing about indirect questioning is that it is non-judgemental.  Therefore by nature it is respectful of the answerer.  Especially when you engage someone on a contentious issue, it is often more productive to start with an indirect questioning style.  Instead of openly challenging the other person’s opinion (How can you believe that?), you use belief-neutral, open ended inquiry. (Tell me your thinking on that.)  This friendlier approach does two things.  It diffuses potential animosity that can sidetrack discourse, and it leads to common ground upon which mutual understanding can occur.  In short, you are acting less like a hard-boiled prosecutor and more like a kindly Socrates.  In effect, you are engaging the heart and appearing empathetic.  Most people like that!

Indirect questioning is good for exploring the “how” and the “why” of issues.  In my view, indirect questioning results in more valuable results over time, especially in dealing with important problems.  In problem solving methodologies I have seen and saved for my own use, we are taught to start with brainstorming.  That requires putting aside all preconceptions and prejudices, then starting on a solution by quickly generating many possibilities.  Synergies among these creative alternatives leads to best case solutions, ones unknown at the beginning of the process. Indirect questioning is similar in that you discover things you did not know you were seeking.  While direct questions are narrow yet quick and efficient, indirect queries can be more comprehensive, even if more time consuming.

Another useful inquiry type is the rhetorical question. Unlike the previous categories of query, you are not seeking an answer.  Instead this one is a figure of speech.  It is meant to emphasize an emotion or accentuate a point.  In effect, the speaker already knows the answer or an answer is unnecessary.  A stock tool of traditional public speaking and a well worn literary device,  the rhetorical question has dramatic punch.  It is often used at key points in a narrative to summarize the emotions dominating the scene.  It can range from the common place:

     Who knows?

     Are you stupid?

     Is rain wet?

To the famous, both real and fictional:

     My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?  (Jesus Christ on the cross, Gospel of Matthew, 27:46)

     I am a Jew.  Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions?….If you prick us, do we not bleed?  (Shylock in Shakespeare’s play The Merchant of Venice)

     Senator; you’ve done enough.  Have you no sense of decency, sir?  At long last, have you left no sense of decency?   (Joseph Welch, US Army counsel, confronting Senator Joseph McCarthy, June 9, 1954, Army-McCarthy Hearings in US Senate)

Powerful stuff!  Like most powerful things, this device should be used carefully, sparingly, and at the right place in the communication process, such as at the end of a long discourse.

Finally, let me add one more question type, which is really an answer, the turn.  In a turn, the person asked the original question responds with a question, either directly or later on in a dialogue.  For example, when asked this:

     Why is global arms reduction so important?

The respondent can say,

     How can it not be, in an unstable world armed to the teeth?

The original questioner is now placed on the defensive, where just a moment before he or she had the offensive initiative.  Rhetorical martial arts!

Further, I counsel those approaching important interviews, like for a new job, promotion, client, team, or project, to prepare to use turns.   We all know these nerve racking events, the ones where you are bombarded with questions to see if you are worthy of selection.  I suggest preparing to reverse the information flow when the opportunity arises.

For example, if the hiring agent says, (in time honored fashion),

     If you join us, where do you see yourself in five years? 

Instead of the usual litany of goals and expectations, how about using a turn?  You can say sometime like,

     Great question! (To start, butter them up a little.)  I’ve thought about that a lot. To respond in a more relevant way, first I’d like to know where this organization sees itself in five years.  Can you tell me about that?

Okay, the interview progresses.  Towards the end, the interviewers ask, as they always do, if you have any (other) questions.  You must be prepared with additional, cogent questions based on your thorough research of that organization.  This is easier.  They are handing you the turn!  If you haven’t already, use it!

INQUIRY BEHAVIOR

The type of question to use is important in any successful communication.  Yet even more important is how questions are delivered.  Our behavior in discovering new information is key both to the cooperation of those questioned and to the reliability of their responses.  So here are some good practices.

To begin, think about how you feel when you are questioned.  If the questioner is respectful, don’t you think better of that person?  Don’t you want to make more of an effort to answer?  It’s the golden rule of course.  Before any other tip, treat others like you yourself want to be treated.  Even if they are hostile, always set an exemplary example of how to behave. Respect others as you respect your self.

Let’s drill down on that practice.  What does respect really mean in the context of Q&A?  When I look back over hundreds of formal Q&A sessions I have attended across several decades, certain effective behaviors come to mind.

First, use appropriate wording.  Studies have shown that most people use no more then 2,500 words on a regular basis, even though there are more than 25,000 words available in the English language.   Therefore, avoid jargon and uncommon vocabulary.  Unless you need complex terms, such as in a science discussion, keep your phrasing as simple and straight forward as possible.  So instead of:

     If you please, Sir, kindly elucidate your prognostication on swine carcass valuations in the near term.

You can say,

     Where are pork belly prices headed?

Surely, that was an exaggerated example.  Still you get the point.  Now let’s shift to the Q&A flow. You state your question while the other person listens.  Then you listen while the other responds.  The classic back and forth ensues.  That is what is supposed to happen.  Still, human beings – creative, emotional creatures that they are – behave in all kinds of ways, often unpredictable, from simply impolite to downright scary.

Next, let’s talk about interruptions.  Suppose your listener interrupts you in mid-sentence as you try to ask your question.  What do you do?   You have a range of options.  Let’s say it’s an innocent mistake in decorum.  Perhaps your listener is just eager to engage with you and jumped the gun.   Here, you can pause, let the other finish their interjection, and continue, or even start again.  Alternately you can stop and say, “Please let me finish my question; then I’ll be happy to listen to your response.”  You have to read the situation and make quick decisions. If the actual occasion is a critical one, perhaps a tense meeting between highly opposed groups, that’s a different story.  You will want to be prepared in advance for improper behavior.   In that case, it is best to rehearse Q&A in simulated sessions.  As part of this exercise you can agree with colleagues how you can “tag team” on questioning, if more than one of you are doing the Q&A.  This has the side benefit of showcasing great teamwork

Now suppose YOU are the one interrupting.  Generally, I try to avoid that.  It’s bad form, especially of one person talks over the other so neither’s remarks are intelligible.  If you must interrupt though,  I have some thoughts.  Suppose you ask a reasonable question yet the respondent has a long, rambling answer, maybe repetitious or off topic.  They are eating up time and really not providing an answer.  (Sound familiar?  Just turn on the cable news.)  In that case, I firmly believe your interjection can be justified.  The best way to do it is to exploit the natural flow of language.  In other words, try to insert your words at the right time in the flow.  That can be between the other’s sentences, or at least between major phrases in a compound and/or complex sentence, or at natural pauses. Alternatively, since the speaker has to breathe sometime, when they pause for a breath, dive in!  You are minimally disturbing their content but herding the discussion back on track.  Imagine this scenario.

(You)  Can you please tell me why the price on this product has jumped nearly 50% since last year?

(Sales Person)  The pricing situation is very fluid.  A lot of factors come into play.  We try hard to maintain competitive pricing but that is difficult to do all the time.  As I said fluidity is an issue. So…(As he pauses, Jump in.)

(You)  Okay, but respectfully, Sir, what are the SPECIFIC reasons the price on THIS product has gone up 50% in six months?  

(Sales Person, after a little hemming and hawing) ….Well, let me see what I can do for you on that price….

Allow me to reveal a little secret about myself.  I enjoy such conversations!  It’s great to pin down someone who is trying verbally to weasel out of a damming situation.  But I digress…

In the Q&A flow, take the time periodically to summarize what you heard in response to your questioning.  It’s another form of respect for the respondent, plus you will find out of you really understood the other person.  Rephrase the answers in your own words.  When you the recipient have to grope for synonyms and logic chains, you are forced to truly analyze the signal.

Okay, one last thought on behavior.  To attract and maintain the attention of others, you MUST project confidence.  Even if you are scared to death of public speaking, even if you must endure disrespect or other suboptimal event conditions, force your self to act confident.  That means look and speak as if you have total faith in yourself.  Contributing factors include excellent voice qualities (volume, pace, pitch, emotional tone, diction, etc.), erect posture, good eye contact, natural gestures, an amiable smiling face, a calm yet determined demeanor.  After all, you eagerly want to be there.  Why?  Because, it is critically important to you – and to your audience –  to share the search for meaning in a complex world.

****

The best ways to improve any communication technique are practice and analysis of practice.  Practice, practice, practice!.  But along the way, remember routinely to dissect what you did and to determine how to do it better next time.

It’s equally advisable to document the Q&A process from important events.  In the critical parts of your life, why not keep a written log of important questions and answer?  That’s better than pure memory.   Certain questions, like the five-year one above, are common in interviews.  Why not perfect your response?  So analyze how the last interaction fared, then fine tune your Q&A,  You WILL do better the next time.

Great content,  Great delivery.  That’s what communication, especially the art of the question, is all about.  Keep it up!  The ability to question wisely is the hallmark of a truly intelligent being.

As playwright Tennessee Williams said,

Life is an unanswered question, but let’s still believe in the dignity and importance of the question.